Studies in the World History of Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation, II, 1 (1997)

Lovejoy argues that sufficient information exists about individuals taken as captives in the slave trade to allow historians to dispense with a generalized notion of a "traditional" African background for New World blacks and, accordingly, to articulate the African-ness of the black diaspora with ethnic and historical specificity. Lovejoy concedes there are difficulties involved with absorbing the "extensive documentation on the African-ness of the slave communities of the diaspora," but he lays out a program for future diasporic studies. Prominent in this program are the compilation of biographical data on captives and slaves (including oral source material), the analysis of the sites of the slave trade and movements of Africaderived peoples, the analysis of cultural activities, and an unprecedented form of international, inter institutional cooperation, most notably among African, American, and European institutions which promote education and research. "Il ne servirait a rien non plus de dissimuler nos propres résponsabilités dans les désastres qui se sont abattus ou continuent de s'abattre sur nous. Nos complicités dans la traite [en esclaves] sont bien établies, nos divisions absurdes, nos errements collectifs, l'esclavage comme institution endogene...." Nicéphore Dieudonné Soglo The UNESCO Slave Route Project With these words, the Président de la République du Bénin launched the UNESCO "Slave Route" Project on 1 September 1994 at the old slaving port of Ouidah. To achieve world peace, Soglo continued, it is necessary to come to terms with the legacy of slavery, not only the brutalities of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and chattel slavery in the Americas but also the legacy of the blood-soaked ritual houses in the royal palaces at Abomey, the capital of the Kingdom of Dahomey. The "Slave Route" began within Africa, and its impact was often severe for both deported Africans and those who remained as slaves in West Africa as well. The pursuit of the "Slave Route" represents a departure in the study of the history of Africa and the African diaspora. Hitherto, Africa and the diaspora have generally been discrete subjects of enquiry. Despite the work of Pierre Verger, Roger Bastide, Melville Herskovits and others, scholars have rarely pursued common links between Africa and the Americas. To address this disjuncture in scholarship is the target of the UNESCO Project, which aims to trace the slave trade from the original points of enslavement in the African interior, through the coastal (and Saharan) entrepots by which slaves were exported from the region, to the societies in the Americas and the Islamic world into which they were imported. The selection of Ouidah as the venue for the announcement of the Slave Route Project was auspicious, since Ouidah had witnessed the deportation of hundreds of thousands of slaves in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The enduring memories of the trade were on display, as a tour of museums in Ouidah, Porto Novo and Abomey revealed. The Porto Novo palace was the venue for a display of contemporary Béninois art, which depicted the tragedies of the slave trade in several mediums. The current depiction of the African past through art stood in sharp contrast to the racism of French society during the late nineteenth century as depicted through posters and advertising from the age of the Scramble; the legacy of slavery and the slave trade were readily apparent. The horrors of slavery emerge in a most grotesque form in the Abomey palace of King Ghezo. The walls of the shrine where thousands of war captives were sacrificed contain the dried blood used to make the bricks. In this setting, the opening words of President Soglo became all the more poignant. As the President proclaimed, "we are all responsible for the slave trade." At the closing of the colloquium, the Minister of Education and Culture disclosed the fact that he is the son of a slave and that he wanted to know about the descendants of his brothers and sisters in the diaspora; the pain of the past era could not have been sharper. With the UNESCO initiative, an effort is being made to bridge that almost unbridgeable gap that separates the academic study of slavery and the slave trade from a full and general appreciation of the heritage of Africa in the diaspora and the modern world. The emphasis on the "slave route" draws attention to the consequences of the trade on Africa and the continuities that rooted the deported slave population in Africa. Some slave descendants and former slaves returned, particularly in the nineteenth century. And there seems always to have been a small movement of individual freemen, especially merchants and their sons, within the diaspora. The settlement of liberated slaves in Sierra Leone and their subsequent dispersal represented one of several patterns of population movement that was a consequence of the slave trade. Besides the slaves taken off slave ships and settled in Sierra Leone, other former slaves returned from Brazil, especially after the suppression of the Male revolt of 1835. A few came from the United States, the Caribbean and other parts of the diaspora, a migration that tended to increase after the emancipation of slaves in the different parts of the Americas. As these demographic patterns suggest, the return of former slaves and their descendants to Africa was one mechanism by which the diaspora influenced West Africa. "African history" not only followed the slave route to the Americas and the Islamic world, but "diaspora history" came back to Africa with the repatriates, thereby complicating the African component in the evolution of the diaspora. The African diaspora came to embrace Africa itself. A revisionist interpretation of the dispersal of enslaved Africans in the era of the transAtlantic slave trade, and by extension to the Islamic world and the Indian Ocean basin, concentrates on the role of Africa in the genesis and ongoing history of the diaspora. This revisionist approach emphasizes the continuities in African history and the extension of that history into the diaspora. The identification of disjunctures in that history is essential, but in contrast to previous interpretations of the diaspora, these disjunctures are analysed in terms of the continuities that have been largely overlooked. There were often concentrations of slaves from similar backgrounds in particular slave societies in the Americas, and in some cases where the number of slaves was sufficiently large, several distinct historical backgrounds had a determining influence on the formation of identifiable communities. That is, in most parts of the Americas, slaves tended to perceive of themselves in terms of communities that had roots in Africa. Although the relevance of the African background is usually admitted, the continuities and discontinuities of African history in the diaspora are usually minimized or ignored. With rare exceptions, such as the identification of a Muslim factor, it is as if Africa had little impact on the development of slave society and identity in the Americas, except in a generalized sense. Marketing behavior, credit institutions, religious rituals, naming practices, funeral ceremonies, and other features of culture are recognized as sharing traits with a generalized and often timeless Africa, but there has been little attempt to demonstrate how these cultural traits developed in the context of specific historical situations in Africa from which identifiable groups of enslaved Africans actually trace their provenance. Identification of cultural traits is hardly sufficient for the purposes of analysing the development of the African diaspora, however. The analysis and discussion in this paper depends upon the concept of diaspora. A diaspora, like the ethnic group with which it is identified, requires the recognition of a boundary; those on one side are associated with the homeland, if there is one, and those on the other side are in the diaspora. Individuals define themselves in opposition to their, often many and varied, host societies through the identification with the homeland and other diaspora communities. Individuals in the diaspora are usually in contact with the homeland, however irregular and indirect. Political and environmental factors can temporarily disrupt or impede this interchange, but the diaspora ceases to have meaning if the idea of an ancestral home is lost. While abroad, individuals maintain their social identity by living in communities which trace their origins to the homeland. As the case of the Jewish diaspora demonstrates, the inability to access a homeland for a prolonged period can prompt a quest that in itself becomes an important component of the identity of the diaspora. In the case of the African diaspora, identification with the homeland varied considerably. In many places, individuals participated in organized communities whose origins in Africa distinguished among several ethnic, religious and political backgrounds. White masters and overseers regularly acknowledged ethnic and religious differences among slaves in the conduct of the economic life of plantations. Their perceptions of differences among slaves are important in reconstructing the hidden dimensions of slave communities, but only through careful study. Slaves, as was the case with members of other diasporas, did not readily accept the categorization of their masters and hosts, the "African-ness" of the diaspora emerged in tandem with the evolving racism that provided the moral and liminal means of upholding the enslavement of blacks. In general discussion, masters referred to all slaves as a category, rarely distinguishing among them as individuals. Racial designations and stereotypes blur the historical identities of the various ethnic communities that formed under slavery. How and when racialist influences shaped slavery and the lives of slaves obviously varied. Racial stereotyping was constantly reformulated, just as ethnicity and community were perpetually redefined under slavery. Diasporas had their particular tensions with their host societies; in the Americas that tension expressed itself through